The results indicate that electric voltage variation significantly affects the characteristics of PVDF–SnO₂ membranes. Increasing the voltage from 15 kV (PSE 1) to 30 kV (PSE 3) leads to improvements in pore size and distribution, where PSE 3 shows the highest average pore size (6.03 ± 0.12), while PSE 1 has the lowest (4.44 ± 0.17). In terms of mechanical properties, PSE 1 exhibits the h…